Beena Agarwal

Indian English Drama: A Kaleidoscopic view of The Myriad Traditions from Tagore to Dattani

Indian English drama with the dawn of the writings of K.M. Banerjee and M.M. Dixit has passed through the different stages of development, transactions of traditions, synthesis of Eastern and Western models, forming an impetus wave of nobility and profundity. On the one hand it was foregrounded on the high requisites of theatrical tradition and aesthetic commitments encouraged by classical Sanskrit drama and on the other hand it had synthesized native and regional theatrical traditions. It also shared the influences of modern European theatrical canons like that of Impressionistic Drama, drama of Absurd, and such other advanced forms of dramatic art constructed on the lines of psycho-analytical approaches of art and literature. Inside the Indian cultural milieu, dramatists used rural and folk traditions like Ramlila, Raslila, Devidasis, Puppet Plays, Yatra Plays, coupled with requirements of aesthetic and theatrical creed. In this regard, Indian English drama can be defined as the synthesis of contradictory shades of theatrical practices nourished in the East and the West. K.M. Banerjee with the creation of Dramatic Scenes Illustrative of Present State of Hindu Society in Calcutta without any substantial theatrical background tried to expose the conflict of a sensitive youth influenced by Western education.
Sir Aurobindo, inspite of his philosophical insight and seer like vision, enriched the tradition of verse drama modeled after classical tragedy. Aurobindo presented Greek legends to articulate deep philosophical meanings. In the choice of characters, incidents and dialogues, Aurobindo seems to show the influence of Shakespeare. It is a distinction of the dramatic art of Aurobindo that he has presented variety of periods and locales ranging from ancient Greek times to medieval India. Aurobindo in the selection of stage craft and setting tried to imitate European traditions but his plays are lacking in originality of conception and vehemence of passion. It has been attributed:
In spite of some scenes of dramatic tension, stray passages of poetic beauty and a few moments of bright wit and humour in the comedies, the drama of Sri Aurobindo is perhaps hardly in the same class as his major poetry and prose. )Naik 101)
In Indian English drama, the mingling of imitative spirit of Elizabethan traditions and folk theatre got a new artistic excellence in the hands of Tagore who irrigated the soil of Indian Theatre with fifty three separate types of plays. Tagore’s dramatic art is the melting pot of several traditions – native and western moving with the ease of sweep and philosophical insight. More than that of theatrical effectiveness, the plays of Tagore exhibit his concern for ethical values, human sensibility, propaganda against oppression and the awareness of personal relationship. His dramatic art was influenced by the tradition of ‘Yatra’, the folk theatre of Bengal. His early plays like Valmiki Pratibha, Saradotsava and The Cycle of Spring are written in the background of nature where nature works as background to human actions. For the flexibility of artistic canons and dynamism of conception, Tagore avoids the use of unified pattern of acts and scenes. The play Sanyasi begins with soliloquy and it helps the audience to probe into the perverted ego of Sanyasi. The play The Cycle of Spring begins with exceptionally elaborate prologue. The idea of prologue echoes the tradition of Prastavana of Sanskrit Drama. In the plays of social protest like Chandalika, Sacrifice and Natir Puja, Tagore makes extensive use of symbolism to register his protest against the cramped conventions of society. In The King of Dark Chambers; Tagore makes a unique effort to project an abstract theme on the stage. Similarly in Red Oleanders the image of Yakshapuri and the King of Gold, the consistent idea of the ‘Curtain’ as an image of illusion is a part of elaborate allegorical symposium. Tagore for a greater objectivity in presentation and for bringing drama closer to the life of commonman makes frequent use of point of view technique. It suggests Tagore’s skill to seek greater participation of public from the cross sections of society. The participation of public in the plays like Muktadhara, Red Oleanders, Sacrifice, Post Office associates his dramatic art with the aesthetics of humanism that was the cardinal core of his speculation. To maintain the sublimity of the art of theatre, he avoids the use of excessive of theatrical paraphernalia and artistic props. In one of his critical essays, he has registered his protest against the use of rigid classical canons. Tagore to enhance the appeal of popular theatre makes extensive use of symbols though quite often these symbols have resulted in obscurity. S.K. Desai in his critical observation admitted, “Tagore creates a prison of symbols without genuine vitality and life, which is the primary criterion of literature.” (Desai 153) Sujit Mukherjee also finds his plays “constantly in danger of setting its symbols proliferate and obscure the human significance.” (Mukherjee 154) Tagore makes use of symbols like “Road” in Sanyasi and Muktadhara, “curtain” in Red Oleanders to justify his complex humanism in context of contemporary existing socio-political realities. The most remarkable feature of Tagore’s dramatic art is his use of songs. The echoes of musical strain show that Tagore has used songs for different effects in different plays. In The Cycle of Spring, songs serve as the integral part of the theme. On the other hand, in Muktadhara and Grahapravesh the songs are introduced only to provide vitality to action. In The King of Dark Chambers and Post Office songs are introduced to produce music to create soothing atmosphere as it can be traced in Shakespearean tragedies. The constant use of songs by Tagore suggests his affinity with the folk tradition of Bengal Theatre. These songs have become more effective and vital with the use of poetic devices like the use of imagery and figure of speeches. It also helps to provide deep insight into the emotional and mental conflict of characters. However the extensive use of song and dance is fit for verse drama but it fails to sustain extensive dramatic tension. Tagore with his dramatic canvas constructed the models of drama suitable to cater to the interest of public with all soothing and arcadian surroundings without the burden of literary pretensions. 
Vijay Tendulkar who has been acknowledged as the vanguard of Marathi theatre made significant contribution to give a direction to the tradition of English drama. As a playwright he admits the power of two components- one the skill of “characterization” and other the sense of “structure.” It is further a credit to Tendulkar that he has synthesized the traditional mechanism of native and folk theatre with highly advanced western theories of drama. He admits, “As a playwright my characters were the backbone of my plays and they were not cardboard cut-outs but living human beings who had their separate life and expression.” (Collected Plays XXVI) As a dramatist he exhibits his awareness to internalize the details of human behaviour at different levels and in different circumstances. For the character revelation at the fullest extent, he makes specific reference to the use of words. For him dramatic dialogue does not sound like any speech but it is the spontaneous expression of the person. “A good play must have characters with their own voice and expression.” (Tendulkar XXIX) The way of speaking, the emphasis on certain words, broken sentences, broken words and incomplete sentences construct to increase the vivacity of dramatic expression. “A play basically requires living characters who speak their own language.” (Tendulkar XXX) Besides of characters, Tendulkar emphasized the need of the collective structure of drama. For the structure of drama, he appreciates the plays like Waiting for Godot and Chairs. He proceeds with the convention that in performing, art structure is not seen but felt. A performing structure is not static but it has a steady movement. For structural efficiency he owed the power of Strindberg’s The Father. His conviction is that the speech pattern corresponding with the mental state of characters significantly contributing to bring about a change in society. He admits:
I like to compare a playwright to a musical instrumentalist or a professional photographer. His technique has to become a part of his person like his fingers and his hand, an extension of his hand to say. It must function as naturally as his mind and body like one extended entity. (Tendulkar  XXXIII)  
With this view of internal structure, he also admits the power of silence to make his words effective. In this respect Tendulkar’s dramatic art has come close to western theatrical tradition of naturalism, expressionism, and the elements of the theatre of absurd. He accepts that “silence” as a part of dramatic device can better contribute to recreate the structure of the mind of the characters. In his first play Silence! the Court is in Session he carves out a rebel against the established values of orthodox society. In this play the idea of play within the play as a part of trial in the Courts reminds of Shakespeare’s play within the play in Hamlet. With the manipulation of technique, Tendulkar has explored their psyche to the extent of revealing the hidden sense of failure pervading in their lives. By the end of the play Miss Benare’s self justification and self defence emerges as a mechanism to seek spaces for the speech of women in gender biased social structure. An almost “Pirandellesque” effect is achieved as the character moves back and forth from make believe to naked reality. Tendulkar in his plays like the dramatists of naturalistic plays makes use of integral dramatic symbols. Tendulkar was influenced by Western playwrights like Arthur Miller, Tennessee Williams and J.B. Priestley. In the political play Encounter in Umbugland, Tendulkar exploits the technique of journalism for dramatic effect. The character of Pranacharya is presented as the character of Sutradhara or that of a chorus. The play has the usual three acts, multiple – scene structure. Tendulkar here presents two “Pen Bearers” as the media person to make report on political development in the state of Umbugland. It is a method of objective justification on the nature of events. In the play The Vultures, Tendulkar revives the situation of sensationalism, sex and violence. In this play Tendulkar makes Rajninath to recite three poems at the beginning and end of Act I and at the conclusion to bind the events of the plot in a collective whole. In the major part of the play, the dramatist remains a dominant observer but his inner self is revealed in the lines of these poems. He punctuates the structure of drama with the poems, suspends the chronological movement of the play and gives an interesting twist to the conventional dramatic structure. In Sakharam Binder, the growth of the inner self of Sakharam comprising of Good and Evil constitutes the strength of the play. The play has a three act structure that is in harmony with the development of action. The paraphernalia and the language are exceptionally appropriate to decode the crudeness and uncompromising violence within the psyche of Sakharam. The echoes of journalism have also been vitalized in the social play like Kamala. Tendulkar here too follows naturalistic model of playwriting. Regarding his dramatic art, it has been attributed, “His creativity has a prismatic quality, myriad potentials and multitude of colours seems to inmate from it.” (Banerjee 584) The play Ghashiram Kotwal takes his pen against the operations of religiosity, sexuality and deputationist politics. Here Tendulkar manipulates several folk theatre traditions, the Khela, the Tamasha, the Gandhal and the Bharud. The touch of mingling of verse music and prose provides a distinctive flavor to the theme of political oppression. In order to expose the horrors of naked reality, he introduces the element of “human wall” as anticipated curtain. It has been attributed, “Tendulkar can be called a complete playwright in the tradition of Shakespeare … he holds up a heightened reflection of society without offering any pat resolutions…” (Deccan Herald).
Asif Currimbhoy who was basically a business executive explored new horizons in Indian drama with the contribution of his more than thirty plays. Deviating from the current of philosophical and romatic creed of Aurobindo and Tagore, he represented the themes borrowed from current political, social and economic problems, East-West Encounter, psychological conflict, religion, philosophy and art. He adopted a documentary technique to dramatize the political events like partition, Sino-Indian conflict, liberation of Goa, Indian freedom struggle, the naxalite movement and Indo-China war. He has been appreciated for his mother art and his plays are placed in the category of world dramas. Faubian Bowers, the eminent theatre critic considers him India’s ‘first authentic voice’. He said, “Asif’s work helped him in no mean measure to understand the spirit of India.” (Bowers 4) He successfully achieves the communication process that enriches the effectiveness and theatrical performance. Asif Currimbhoy adopts ‘Conflict’ as a powerful mechanism to achieve the desired effect in theatre. The technique of evaluating complex personalities and dramatic situation from the interplay of deep rooted and diverse cultural ethos is the distinction of Asif Currimbhoy. K.M. George in his preface to Asif Currimbhoy’s plays asserts:
He appears to follow the paths of world famous dramatists in structuring his scenes. Indian playwrights have often been inspired by Ibsen and O’Neill. In Currimbhoy’s plays we can trace the kinship with Beckett and Ionesco. That’s why some of Currimbhoy’s plays seem to lack a well constructed plot or action, logical dialogue and discernible characterization. In a way they carry with them the mystery that is India. (George 06) 
M. K. Naik in his criticism of Asif Currimbhoy’s plays finds a strong ‘documentary element’ and about them there is no attempt to understand the ideological implications of political conflicts. In the plays related to the socio-political theme, he makes use of strong creative imagination but in the plays like ‘Dol Drummer’ there is a strong element of melodrama. The element of melodrama is also remarkable in the plays like The Tourist Mecca (1959), The Hungry One (1965) and Darjeeling Tea (1971). In the plays Clock (1959) and the Dumb Dancer (1961), Asif uses highly complex psycho-analytical background for the exposure of the plot. He also makes use of symbols for the richness of expression and the effective communication. His symbols are often conventional and sometimes lead to confusion. Asif Currimbhoy makes use of artificial technique, theatrical trickery and stage gimmicks. In this respect Asif does not believe in the drama as a mode of imitative art. M.K. Naik attributes:
Unless Currimbhoy realizes that drama is something plethora of sounds and parody of violence, at his enviable industry and enthusiasm are unlikely to produce viable and worth while plays. (139) 
In spite of his innovative vision and wide range, Currimbhoy failed to provide any definite shape of Indian theatrical structure. Still he has undoubtedly extended the frontiers of drama by adding political historical and rich personal themes required to make a distinctive image of Indian drama.
Girish Karnad with his six plays Yayati (1961), Tuglaq (1964), Hayvadana (1971), The Fire and Rain, Nagmandala (1988) and Tale-Dande (1990) explored new possibilities in Indian theatre. He added new dimensions with plot construction, characterization, songs, spectacle, use of myths, reinterpretation of history, projection of contemporary social and psychological problems. The synthesis of history and myth has been a potent tool in the hands of Girish Karnad. Girish Karnad himself acknowledges the contribution of Natak Mandlis and Natak companies. Unlike other contemporary dramatists like Vijay Tendulkar and Badal Sircar, Karnad depends on Indian mythology for his themes. With his passion for myths, Tendulkar has explored new possibilities in the realm of Indian drama. The synthesis of history and myth added new dimension to Indian theatre. In the play Yayati he reconstructs the myth drawn from Mahabharata. In the play the subject matter is purely native and traditional. The form and structure are essentially western. It has been the originality of Karnad that he has projected a new meaning and significance relevant to contemporary context. He defines the theme of the play in context of Satre’s ideology of Existentialism. In persuance of the tradition of classical Sanskrit drama, he accepts the role of Sutradhara. In this play Karnad, “seems to have used this myth with a view to expose the absurdity of life with all its elemental passions and conflicts and also to show man’s eternal struggle to achieve perfection.” (Nand Kumar 122) For the plot of the play Hayvadana, Girish Karnad has explored the Sanskrit stories of Katha-saritsagar. It is based on the tale of the transposition of heads. Girish Karnad’s Hayvadana opens with the projection of the myth of Ganesha who being an embodiment of imperfection is worshipped as the destroyer of incompleteness. Ganesh symbolizes the transposition of heads which constitutes the main texture of the plot. In Hayvadana, Karnad’s trend of setting the play strikes an innovative trend by exploring the dramatic potential of the ancient Indian myths, legends and folk tradition. He begins the play with Nand (Singing of benedictory song) and ends with Bharatavakya (Valedictory Prayer) recalling the tradition of ancient Sanskrit drama. The play Nagmandla is based on two oral tales from Karnataka. In this play he deals with the idea of the social adjustment in man and woman relationship. In this play Rani, the female protagonist was ruined of her chastity by a Cobra. Here the presence of Naga represents “a cultural leader who is instrumental in bringing about a socio-cultural reform” (Sarat Babu 248) King Cobra has a mythical existence and equated with a Brahamin. The curse of killing Cobra results in disaster in the family. Rani, the protagonist develops her secret relationship with Naga and this mystical relationship is to be justified in context of social commitments. Karnad’s Nagmandla has become a mockery of the patriarchal moral code which believes in the loyality of the husband. Naga has been projected as potent fertility symbol. In The Fire and Rain, Karnad refers to the myth of Yavukri occurred in the Chapter 135 of Vana Parva. Yavakari, the son of sage Bharadwaja performed great penance in order to obtain knowledge of Vedas without studying them and having all knowledge from Indra; he became arrogant and treated other sages with disrespect. Here Karnad changes the basic framework of the myth but retains the basic nature and atmosphere of myth. The myth of Yajana seems to be reversed and correctly so because the headpriest, responsible for the success of Yajana, is neither a human being nor a priest. The epilogue of the play deals with the myth of Vrita and Indra. In the play within the play, Indra is said to be the brother of Varita, the king of the neither world. The use of the myths on such an extensive scale has enabled him to project multi-layers of social, historical, religious and human ideologies that can eliminate the formal demarcation of past and present, religious and secular, ancient and contemporary. It expands the possibilities of those domains of human consciousness that are universal and timeless. He mentions his motive in dealing with myths:
One of the fascinating aspects of dealing with myths is their self reflectivity. A myth seems complete in itself and yet when examined in detail, contains subconscious signals which lead you on another myth which in turn will act as a conduit to a third one while illuminating the one you started with. (Karnad The Fire and Rain, 69)
Indian English drama in the hands of Mahesh Dattani took a new direction. He made experiments with multilevel stage setting and has tried to capture the fractured consciousness of the post modern consumer society. Dattani with his dramatic art made efforts to bring theatre nearer to the real life experience. In the capacity of a theatrical artist, Dattani made experiments to bring out the best of the new experience. All the three components of drama – ‘writer’, ‘actor’ and ‘audience’ move in the direction of a unified sensibility. He has a realization that drama by virtue of the power of performance has better possibilities of communication and therefore a dramatist can work more effectively to bring about changes in society. He mentions:
I see myself as a craftsman and not as a writer. To me being a playwright is about being myself as a part of the process of a production. I write plays for the sheer pleasure of communicating through the dynamic medium. (Qtd. By Nair  The Gentleman  2001)   
Dattani conceives dramatic situations not in isolation but as a ‘whole’ to eliminate the gap of “page and stage”. Instead of achieving to the tradition of classical theatre and native tradition, he evolved a theatrical tradition representing Indian life and Indian sensibility. Dattani makes use of plain and direct prose expression without externally imposed poetic strain. In the play Thirty Days in September, Dattani presents stage divided in four-areas. The first area has Councilor’s chair, the second area represents the ‘Living Room’, the third area is the Pooja Room, the fourth area is the most flexible, representing several locations. In the background of Mala’s taped conversation, there is the back of a life sized doll of seven-year-old girl. The collective impression of these four areas assimilated in the consciousness of Mala is that Dattani conceives the image of life woven out of contradictions.
In the play Dance Like a Man, the societal pressure on individual born out of gender consciousness, has been projected through the division of the stage in the form of “Interiors” and “Exteriors”. Through the quick shift of scenes between past and present, conflicts of professional life and personal desire, Jairaj and Ratna have successfully been manipulated in the dramatic structure to give an insight of their mental spaces. The idea of playing different roles by the same person is unique. The demarcation of a stage is suggested through suspended picture frames. The shift of time and space has been projected through the use of light and music. In the play On a Muggi Night in Mumbai, Dattani again presents multilevel sets to expose the different spaces of the house corresponding with different mental sets of different characters. The private mental spaces are represented in the form of dark expensive areas where characters move in a state of mental anguish. The external physical spaces very successfully manifest the twilight of the conflict existing within the mental set of each character. The expressionistic background to expose the sensitive issues like homosexuality is superb. In the play Tara, Dattani evolves self reflective mode within theatrical structure to provide spaces for the self revelation of characters. Asha Kuthari discards the process of unveiling the mask in the process of the development of plot. To quote:
He proceeds to drop his various masks – another obviously meta-theatrical device – the handicapped intellectual masks (mines removing another mask), the desperate immigrant (mines removing yet another). The mysterious Brown with phoney accent… (Kuthari 34)
In Final Solutions Dattani uses multi-level sets, flashbacks, corporate mass in the form of chorus and quick shift of public rage. The central action in the play takes place in a crescent shaped ramp where most of the action takes place, governed by mob on an elevated platform. Both in Tara and Final Solutions, the plot is developed through the point of view of chief spectator. The interior and exterior backgrounds indicate divided self, generating persistent hatred. In Where There is a Will, the idea of self-revelation and self-realization through invisible identity is unique in its own way. There are three spaces – the family, the dinning room and the bed room of Hasmukh and Sonal Mehta. The reactions of Hasmukh on the revelation of the inner feeling of different characters induce sufficient humour. The play Tale of a Mother Feeding Her Child, a radio-play, presented through the consciousness of one single character in the form of interior monologue marks an advance in development at Indian Theatre. Variety and lively images give a distinct flavor to the dramatic art of Dattani. Mahesh Dattani emancipating Indian theatre from the canons of Elizabethan theatre and classical influence ensured the possibilities of a more dynamic, flexible and profound tradition of Indian theatre to make theatrical exposure of all pervasive sickness of post Industrial scenario of India. The dramatic spaces constructed within the texture of his plays are in fact the diverse mental spaces, operating within the consciousness of one single Individual.
The analysis of the horizontal and vertical growth of Indian English drama suggests that it is not a representation of silent and insensitive current of thoughts only but a lively current of timeless traditions. It has a glorious past, lively present and a promising future. The frontiers of Indian English drama contain the possibilities of providing a solid foundation to mirror the social reality with the possibilities of sustenance of rich Indian classical and regional theatrical traditions.

 

 

Works Cited

Banerjee, Arundhati: ‘Introduction’. Tendulkar’s Plays in Translation, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006

Bowers, Faubion quoted in “Asif Currimbhoy as a Virtuosco Playwright” The Best Plays of Asif Currimbhoy : A Critical Study. K.A. Agarwal, Jaipur: Book Enclave, 2007

Chaudri, Asha Kuthari. Mahesh Dattani. New Delhi: Foundation Books Pvt. Ltd., 2005

Desai, S.K. “Symbolism in Tagore’s Plays” Critical Essays on Indian Writing in English (Ed) M. K. Naik, S. K. Desai, G. S. Amur. Dharwar: Karnataka University, 1972

George, K.M. Asif Currimbhoy : A Preface, Calcutta: Writer’s Workshop, 1985

Karnad, Girish. Three Plays : Nagamandala, Hayvadana, Tughlaq, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995

Kumar, Nand. Indian English Drama: A Study in Myths, Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2007

M. Sharat Babu. “The Concept of Chastity and Nagamandala”, Jaydip Singh Dodiya (ed.)
Mukherjee, Sujeet. Passage to America. Calcutta: Bookland,1964

Naik, M.K. A History of Indian English Literature, New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1982

Nair Anita. “An Unveiling of a Playwright in Three Acts” The Gentleman,  May, 2001

Tendulkar, Vijay. Tendulkar’s Plays in Translation, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006